Lithic and Archaic stage
Main article: Archaeology of the Americas
See also: Petroglyph, Pictogram, Petroform, Rock art, and Stone tools
In North America, the Lithic stage /or Paleo-indian period is defined in most places dated to before 8000 BC. The period from around 8000 - 800 BC is generally referred to as the Archaic period. The production of bannerstones, Projectile point, Lithic reduction styles and pictographic cave paintings were perhaps their greatest artistic achievements.
The southwestern United States and certain regions of the Andes have the highest concentration of pictograms (painted images) and Petroglyphs (carved images) from this period. Both pictograms and petroglyphs are known as rock art.
Petroglyph from Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
Archaic abstract curvilinear style petroglyphs, Coso Rock Art District, California
Petroglyph from Columbia River Gorge, Washington, USA
Folsom spear-point.
Archaic bannerstone, Ohio
Desert Archaic arrowhead, Wilson Butte Cave, Idaho
Formative stage and beyond
North American
The geo-cultural areas of Native North Americans
Arctic
See also: Inuit art and Alaska Native Art
The Yupik of Alaska have a long tradition of carving masks for use in shamanic rituals. Indigenous peoples of the Canadian arctic have produced objects that could be classified as art since the time of the Dorset culture. While the walrus ivory carvings of the Dorset were primarily shamanic, the art of the Thule people who replaced them ca. 1000 CE was more decorative in character. With European contact the historic period of Inuit art began. In this period, which reached its height in the late 19th century, Inuit artisans created souvenirs for the crews of whaling ships and explorers. Common examples include cribbage boards. Modern Inuit art began in the late 1940s, when with the encouragement of the Canadian government they began to produce prints and serpentine sculptures for sale in the south.
Inuit art from Canada and Alaska
Yupik fish Mask. Wood, Yukon/Kuskokwim region, Alaska, early 20th century.
Inuit soapstone carving, by Ashevak Tunnillie, Cape Dorset, 1999
Baleen basket with carved walrus ivory finial, woven by Kinguktuk (1871-1941), Barrow, Alaska
Various turn-of-the-century Inuit carvings, including cribbage boards and knives. Photo circa 1900
An Inuksuk ("Like a man") from Resolute Bay. Photo July 2008.
Subarctic
Northwest Coast
Main article: Northwest Coast art
See also: Alaska Native art, Kwakwaka'wakw art, and Haida argillite carvings
The art of the Haida, Tlingit, Tsimshian and other smaller tribes living in the coastal areas of Washington State, Oregon, and British Columbia, is characterized by an extremely complex stylistic vocabulary expressed mainly in the medium of woodcarving. Famous examples include Totem poles, Transformation masks, and canoes.
Late Marine Cultures 500-1700 CE
Tsimshian halait mask depicting a mosquito, British Columbia, 19th century. Louvre Museum.
Helmet and collar, wood, copper, leather and shell, 18th century, Tlingit. Museo de Amrica, Madrid, Spain.
A totem pole in Ketchikan, Alaska, in the Tlingit style.
From Saxman Totem Park, Ketchikan, Alaska
From Saxman Totem Park, Ketchikan, Alaska
Cedar bark hat, Nuu-chah-nulth. Museo de Amrica, Madrid, Spain.
East
Northeast
The eastern woodlands, or simply woodlands, cultures inhabited the regions of North America east of the Mississippi river from 2500 BCE to 1600 CE. While there were many regionally distinct cultures, trade between them was common and they shared the practice of burying their dead in earthen mounds, which has preserved a large amount of their art. Because of this trait the cultures are collectively known as the Mound builders.
The Woodland Period (1000 BCE1000 CE) is divided in to early, middle, and late periods, and consisted of cultures that relied mostly on hunting and gathering for their subsistence. Ceramics made by the Deptford culture (2500 BCE-100 CE) are the earliest evidence of an artistic tradition in this region. The Adena culture are another well-known example of an early Woodland culture. They carved stone tablets with zoomorphic designs, created pottery, and fashioned costumes from animal hides and antlers for ceremonial rituals. Shellfish was a mainstay of their diet, and engraved shells have been found in their burial mounds.
The middle woodland period was dominated by cultures of the Hopewell tradition (200-500). Their artwork encompassed a wide variety of jewelry and sculpture in stone, wood, and even human bone.
The late woodland period (500 -1000 CE) saw a decline in trade and in the size of settlements, and the creation of art likewise declined.
More recently the Iroquois fashioned wampum from shells and string; these were used as records of tribal legends, and also as money.
Iroquois people carve False Face masks for healing rituals, but the traditional representatives of the tribes, the Grand Council of the Haudenosaunee, are clear that these masks are not for sale or public display. The same can be said for Iroquois Corn Husk Society masks.
Art from the Eastern woodlands of North America
Hopewell mounds from the Mound City Group in Ohio
Carved soapstone pipe depicting a raven, Hopewell tradition
Hand carved in mica, Hopewell Culture National Historical Park
Copper falcon from the Mound City Group site of the Hopewell culture
Gorget and spear points on display at the Serpent Mound, Adena culture
Southeast
The Poverty Point culture inhabited portions of the state of Louisiana from 20001000 BCE during the Archaic period. Many objects excavated at Poverty Point sites were made of materials that originated in distant places, including chipped stone projectile points and tools, ground stone plummets, gorgets and vessels, and shell and stone beads. Stone tools found at Poverty Point were made from raw materials which originated in the relatively nearby Ouachita and Ozark Mountains and from the much further away Ohio and Tennessee River valleys. Vessels were made from soapstone which came from the Appalachian foothills of Alabama and Georgia. Hand-modeled lowly fired clay objects occur in a variety of shapes including anthropomophic figurines and cooking balls.
Clay cooking utensils, Poverty Point
Clay female figurines, Poverty Point
Carved gorgets and atlatl weights, Poverty Point
The Mississippian culture flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from approximately 800 CE to 1500 CE, varying regionally. After adopting maize agriculture the Mississippian culture became fully agrarian, as opposed to the hunting and gathering supplemented by part-time agriculture practiced by preceding woodland cultures. They built platform mounds larger and more complex than those of their predecessors, and developed more advanced ceramic techniques, commonly using ground mussel shell as a tempering agent. Many were involved with the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex, a pan-regional and pan-linguistic religious and trade network. The majority of the information known about the S.E.C.C. is derived from examination of the elaborate artworks left behind by its participants. By the time of European contact the Mississippian societies were already experiencing severe social stress, and with the social upsets and diseases introduced by Europeans many of the societies collapsed and ceased to practice a Mississippian lifestyle. An exception is the Natchez Nation. Other tribes descended from Mississippian cultures include the Caddo, Choctaw, Muscogee Creek, Wichita, Illiniwek, and many other southeastern peoples.
The Calusa peoples occupied the southern areas of Florida before European contact, and created carvings of animals.
The Seminoles are best known for their textile creations, especially patchwork clothing. Doll-making is another notable craft.
Engraved shell gorget, Spiro Mounds (Mississippian culture)
Ceremonial stone mace, Spiro Mounds (Mississippian culture)
Effigy head pot, Nodena Site (Mississippian culture)
Engraved stone palette, Moundville Site, back used for mixing paint (Mississippian culture)
Stone effigy pipe, Spiro Mounds (Mississippian culture)
Stone effigies, Etowah Site (Mississippian culture)
Ceramic underwater panther jug, Rose Mound (Mississippian culture)
Alligator effigy, wood carving, Calusa, Florida
West
Great Plains
Tribes have lived on the Great Plains for thousands of years. Early Plains cultures are commonly divided into four periods: Paleoindian (at least ca. 10,0004000 BCE), Plains Archaic (ca. 4000250 BCE), Plains Woodland (ca. 250 BCE950 CE), Plains Village (ca. 950-1850 CE). The oldest known painted object in North American was found in the southern plains, the Cooper Bison Skull, found in Oklahoma and dated 10,900-10,200 BCE.
In the Plains Village period, the cultures of the area settled in enclosed clusters of rectangular houses and cultivated maize. Various regional differences emerged, including Southern Plains, Central Plains, Oneota, and Middle Missouri. Tribes were both nomadic hunters and semi-nomadic farmers. During the Plains Coalescent period (1400-European contact) some change, possibly drought, caused the mass migration of the population to the Eastern Woodlands region, and the Great Plains were sparsely populated until pressure from American settlers drove tribes into the area again.
The advent of the horse revolutionized the cultures of many historical Plains tribes. Horse culture enabled tribes to live a completely nomadic existence, hunting buffalo. Buffalo hide clothing was decorated with porcupine quill embroidery and beads dentalia shells and elk teeth were prized materials. Later coins and glass beads acquired from trading were incorporated into Plains art. Plains beadwork has flourished into contemporary times.
Buffalo was the preferred material for Plains hide painting. Men painted narrative, pictorial designs recording personal exploits or visions. They also painted pictographic historical calendars known as Winter counts. Women painted geometric designs on tanned robes and rawhide parfleches, which sometimes served as maps.
During the Reservation Era of the late 19th century, buffalo herds were systematically destroyed by non-native hunters. Due to the scarcity of hides, Plains artists adopted new painting surfaces, such as muslin or paper, giving birth to Ledger art, so named for the ubiquitous ledger books used by Plains artists.
Sioux dress with fully beaded yoke.
Sioux beaded and painted rawhide parfleches.
Ledger drawing of Haokah (ca. 1880) by Black Hawk (Lakota).
Kiowa ledger art, possibly of the 1874 Buffalo Wallow battle, Red River War.
Plateau
Since the archaic period the Plateau region, also known as the Intermontaine, had been a center of trade but not of settlement- its people lived subsistence lifestyles and were primarily nomadic. Because of this their art derived its form and style from other regions- the Northwest coast and the Plains in particular- except in basketry and weaving, which were the most varied and developed art forms. The Nez Perce, the Yakima, and other cultures weave corn husks or hemp into bags, which are decorated with "bold, geometric designs".
Great Basin and California
The Great Basin and California also have a tradition of basket-making. In the late nineteenth century Washoe baskets became a popular commodity for tourists in the southern California, which resulted in great innovation in the form of the baskets.
The Washoe artist Dat So La Lee (Louisa Keyser), with several of her baskets, c.1900.
Northern California coiled willow shoot basket, 19th century.
A basket made by the Pomo people of northern California.
A beaded Pomo Basket Bowl.
Lucy Telles (Yosemite Mono Lake Paiute in Yosemite, 1933 displaying one of the large baskets for which she is known.
Southwest
See also: Oasisamerica
The Ancestral Pueblo, or Anasazi, (1000 BCE-700 CE) are the ancestors of today's Pueblo tribes. Their culture formed in the American southwest, after the cultivation of corn was introduced from Mexico around 1200 BCE. People of this region developed an agrarian lifestyle, cultivating food, storage gourds, and cotton with irrigation or xeriscaping techniques. They lived in sedentary towns, so pottery, used to store water and grain, was ubiquitous. These cultures also share the trait of using a Kiva, an underground structure for religious ceremonies, which only Pueblo men enter. Turquoise, jet, and spiny oyster shell have been traditionally used by Ancestral Pueblo for jewelry, and they developed sophisticated inlay techniques centuries ago.
Around 200 CE the Hohokam culture developed in Arizona. They are the ancestors of the Tohono O'odham and Akimel O'odham or Pima tribes. The Mimbres, a subgroup of the Mogollon culture, are especially notable for the narrative paintings on their pottery.
Within the last millennium, Athabaskan peoples emigrated from northern Canada in the southwest. These include the Navajo and Apache. Sandpainting is an aspect of Navajo healing ceremonies that inspired an art form. Navajos learned to weave on upright looms from Pueblos and wove blankets that were eagerly collected by Great Basin and Plains tribes in the 18th and 19th centuries. After the introduction of the railroad in the 1880s, imported blankets became plentiful and inexpensive, so Navajo weavers switched to producing rugs for trade.
In the 1850s, Navajos adopted silversmithing from the Mexicans. Atsidi Sani (Old Smith) was the first Navajo silversmith, but he had many students, and the technology quickly spread to surrounding tribes. Today thousands of artists produce silver jewelry with turquoise. Hopi are renowned for their overlay silver work and cottonwood carvings. Zuni artists are admired for their cluster work jewelry, showcasing turquoise designs, as well as their elaborate, pictorial stone inlay in silver.
Etched shell, Hohokam
Mimbres bowls at Stanford University
A Navajo rug.
Navajo Sandpainting.
Ancestral Pueblo canteen, Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, c. 700 CE1100 CE
Basket, Basketmaker Culture, Ancestral Pueblo
Rochester Rock Art Panel in the San Rafael Swell in Utah, USA
Mesoamerica and Central America
Map of the Mesoamerican cultural region.
See also: Pre-Columbian art#Mesoamerica and Central America
The cultural development of ancient Mesoamerica was generally divided along east and west. The stable Maya culture was most dominant in the east, especially the Yucatan Peninsula, while in the west more varied developments took place in subregions. These included West Mexican (1000-1), Teotihuacan (1-500), Mixtec (1000-1200), and Aztec (1200-1521).
Central American civilizations generally lived to the regions south of modern-day Mexico, although there was some overlap.
Mesoamerica
See also: Mesoamerican architecture and Mesoamerica#Chronology_and_culture
Mesoamerica was home to the following cultures, among others:
Olmec
Main articles: Olmec figurine and Olmec#Art
The Olmec (1500-400 BCE), who lived on the gulf coast, were the first civilization to fully develop in Mesoamerica. Their culture was the first to develop many traits that remained constant in Mesoamerica until the last days of the Aztecs: a complex astronomical calendar, the ritual practice of a ball game, and the erection of stelae to commemorate victories or other important events.
The most famous artistic creations of the Olmec are colossal basalt heads, believed to be portraits of rulers that were erected to advertise their great power. The Olmec also sculpted votive figurines that they buried beneath the floors of their houses for unknown reasons. These were most often modeled in terracotta, but also occasionally carved from jade or serpentine.
Monument 1, one of the four Olmec colossal heads at La Venta. This one is nearly 3 metres (9 ft) tall.
Not all monumental art was associated with towns or villages - The San Martin Pajapan Monument 1 was found at the peak of a dormant volcano.
An "elongated man" figurine, dark green serpentine.
The Wrestler (1500-400 BCE) is an Olmec basalt statuette, likely a personal portrait.
Las Limas Monument 1. Greenstone, Middle Formative Period (1000 600 BCE). Discovered 1965 near Jess Carranza, Veracruz, Mexico. Xalapa Museum of Anthropology, Veracruz
Left side image of La Mojarra Stela 1 showing a person identified as "Harvester Mountain Lord" (Epi-Olmec culture)
An Olmec jade votive axe in the British Museum. 1200-400 BCE.
Olmec figurine in the British Museum.
Teotihuacano
Teotihuacan was a city built around a cave held sacred to those who built it- while their identity is disputed, what is know is that around the 1st century CE the rulers of Teotihuacan began a massive urbanization campaign, building temple complexes and homes laid out on a grid that eventually encompassed 30 km (over 11 square miles).
Marble mask, 3rd - 7th century
Serpentine mask, 3rd-6th century
Turquoise mask pendent, 3rd-6th
A mural showing what has been identified as the Great Goddess of Teotihuacan.
Jaguar painting.
Jaguar sculpture (150 BCE 750 CE).
Classic Veracruz Culture
Main articles: Remojadas and Classic Veracruz Culture#Ceramics
In his 1957 book on Mesoamerican art, Miguel Covarrubias speaks of Remojadas' "magnificent hollow figures with expressive faces, in majestic postures and wearing elaborate paraphernalia indicated by added clay elements."
A large terracotta figurine of a young chieftain in the Remojadas style. 300600 CE; Height: 31 in (79 cm).
Male-female duality figure from Remojadas, 200500 CE. Note the feminine breast and birds on the right side of the figure.
One of a series of murals from the South Ballcourt at El Tajin, showing the sacrifice of a ballplayer.
Zapotec
"The Bat God was one of the important deities of the Maya, many elements of whose religion were shared also by the Zapotec. The Bat God in particular is known to have been revered also by the Zapotec... He was especially associatedwith the underworld." An important Zapotec center was Monte Alban, in present-day Oaxaca, Mexico. The Monte Alban periods are divided into I, II, and III, which range from 200 BCE to 600 CE.
"Bat god" or Jaguar, Oaxaca, 300650 CE. H 9.5" (23 cm).
Clay jaguar statue, Monte Alban, 200 BCE600 CE. H 22" (56 cm). American Museum of Natural History.
Clay bat statue, Monte Alban.
Ceramic urn, 200 BCE-800 CE, British Museum.
Maya
Main articles: Maya art, Maya ceramics, and Maya architecture
The Maya civilization occupied the south of Mexico, all of Guatemala and Belize, and the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador.
Fresco from Structure I, Bonampak, Chiapas, 790 CE
Maya court scene painting on Lord of the Jaguar Pelt Throne vase, 700-800 CE.
Jaina Island ceramic male figurine, 650-800 CE.
Classic Period glyph, site museum at Tonin, Chiapas, Mexico.
Classic Period Maya statue of bound captive, site museum of Tonin, Chiapas.
Classic Period Sculpture of a prisoner in the Tonin site museum.
Classic Period Maya eccentric flint, possibly from Copn or Quirigu, Muses Roayaux d'art et d'Histoire, Brussels.
Portrait of K'inich Janaab Pakal I (603-683 CE), Palenque king, stucco, National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City.
Rain God Chaac, from a Postclassic Maya codex.
Classic Period Lintel 24 from Yaxchiln, British Museum.
Stela D at Quirigu, depicting the Classic Period king K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat.
Stucco bas-relief at Tonin, Chiapas.
Toltec
The Atlantes columns in the form of Toltec warriors in Tula.
An expressive orange-ware clay vessel in the Toltec style.
Mixtec
Main article: Mixtec#Language, codices, and artwork
Mixtec king and warlord Eight Deer Jaguar Claw (right) Meeting with Four Jaguar, in a depiction from the precolumbian Codex Zouche-Nuttall.
Snail shell pendant, 900-1520 CE, gold, Dumbarton Oaks Museum, Washington, DC
Closeup view of Mixtec stone mosaic-work at Mitla. This was an inspiration for similar mosaics by Frank Lloyd Wright.
Another view of the extraordinary Mixtec mosaics at Mitla
Huastec
Main article: Huastec people
Aztec
Main article: Aztec#Arts
Turquoise, red and white shell mosaic pectoral on wood. H 20cm x L 43cm (8" x 17"). Possibly Mixtec. 1400-1521, British Museum.
Turquoise mask. Mixtec-Aztec. 1400-1521.
Tezcatlipoca mask, turquoise, lignite, human skull, iron pyrite, conch and spiny oyster shells. Aztec/Mixtec, 1400-1500s CE, British Museum.
Stone statuette of Ehecatl, the wind god, British Museum.
Seated wooden jaguar with turquoise mosaic. Aztec/Mixtec, 1400-1521, British Museum.
Ceremonial, sacrificial knife, Aztec/Mixtec, Late Post-classic (1400-1500s), British Museum.
Coyolxauhqui stone, Museum of the Templo Mayor, Mexico City.
Statue of Coatlicue, National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City.
Central America and "Intermediate area"
Greater Chiriqui
Greater Nicoya The ancient peoples of the Nicoya Peninsula in present day Costa Rica traditionally sculpted birds in jade, which were used for funeral ornaments. Around 500 CE gold ornaments replaced jade, possibly because of the depletion of jade resources.
Metate, Costa Rica, 300-700 CE.
Tolita or Tumaco ceramic sculpture, Ecuador, 100 BCE-100 CE.
Baha Culture ceramic sculpture, Ecuador, 500 BCE-500 CE.
Caribbean
Duho (Ceremonial wooden stool), Hispaniola. Tano, 1000-1500 CE, carved lignum vitae
Tano zemi, ironwood with shell inlay, Dominican Republic, 15th-16th c. Bowl used for cohoba rituals
Las Caritas, Tano petroglyphs, Lake Enriquillo, Dominican Republic
Tano batey ball court petroglyph, Caguana, Utuado, Puerto Rico.
South American
See also: Pre-Columbian art#South America
The native civilizations were most developed in the Andean region, where they are roughly divided into Northern Andes civilizations of present- day Colombia and Ecuador and the Southern Andes civilizations of present- day Peru and Chil.
Hunter-gatherer tribes throughout the Amazon rainforest of Brazil also have developed artistic traditions involving tattooing and body painting. Because of their remoteness, these tribes and their art have not been studied as thoroughly as Andean cultures, and many even remain uncontacted.
Andes Region
Cotton Pre-Ceramic
See also: Norte Chico civilization and Andean textiles
Chavn
A Chavin stone sculpture in the shape of a head.
Chavin Gold Crown Formative Epoch 1200 BCE to 1 CE Larco Museum Collection
Paracas
Paracas mantle 200 CE Larco Museum, Lima-Per
Paracas mantle, 200 BCE200 CE. LACMA collections
Nazca mantle from Paracas Necropolis, 0-100 AD. This is a "double fish" (probably sharks) design. Brooklyn Museum collections.
Nasca
A fish-like double spout and bridge vessel from Cahuachi.
An example of the Nasca lines.
Moche
"Decapitator" (Ayapec) mural from Huaca de la Luna, Trujillo, Peru.
Guinea Pig stirrup spout vessel. Ceramic, ca. CE 200 Larco Museum Collection, Lima, Peru
Moche warrior duck stirrup spout vessel
Mochica Nariguera depicting the Decapitator (Ayapec, Ai Apaec ), gold with turquoise and chrysocolla inlays. Museo Oro del Peru, Lima
Lambayeque culture
Example of Inca goldsmithing, Museo Oro del Per
Sican (Lambayeque) gold portrait beakers, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
Sican (Lambayeque) funerary mask, 9th-11th century CE. Gold with cinnabar and copper overlays. Metropolitan Museum of Art
Tiwanaku
Map showing the distribution of the Tiwanaku and Wari cultures.
Main article: Tiwanaku#Architecture and art
Closeup of carved stone tenon-head embedded in wall of Tiwanaku's Semi-subterranean Temple
Anthropomorphic receptacle
Ponce stela in the sunken courtyard of the Tiwanaku's Kalasasaya temple
Wari
A Huari tunic.
An example of Huari pottery.
Huari pottery.
Chim empire
Chim Gold apparel, 1300 CE, Larco Museum, Lima, Per
Ceramic llama vessel, 11001400 CE, Museo de Amrica, Madrid, Spain.
Chimu mantle, Late Intermediate Period, 10001476 CE. Design is alternating pelicans and tuna fish.
Inca
Main articles: Inca#Arts and technology, Inca Empire#Arts and technology, and Inca architecture
Hammered and Repoussed gold mural
Inca tunic
Silver and gold Inca statuettes, from the Musee D'Auch.
Amazonia
See also: Weaving#Amazonia
Traditionally limited to access to stone and metals, Amazonian indigenous peoples excel at featherwork, painting, textiles, and ceramics. The Caverna da Pedra Pintada (Cave of the Painted Rock) in the Par state of Brazil houses the oldest firmly dated art in the Americas rock paintings dating back 11,000 years. The cave is also the site of the oldest ceramics in the Americas, from 5000 BCE.
The Island of Maraj, at the mouth of the Amazon River was a major center of ceramic traditions as early as 1000 CE and continues to produce ceramics today, characterized by cream-colored bases painted with linear, geometric designs of red, black, and white slips.
With access to a wide range of native bird species, Amazonian indigenous peoples excel at feather work, creating brilliant colored headdresses, jewelry, clothing, and fans. Iridescent beetle wings are incorporated into earrings and other jewelry. Weaving and basketry also thrive in the Amazon, as noted among the Urarina of Peru.
Ceramic zoomorphic vase, Museu Paraense Emlio Goeldi, Belm, Brazil
Contemporary indigenous man modeling featherwork and body art, Olinda, Brazil
Artist with ceramic figurines, Olinda, Brazil
Urarina weaver using backstrap loom, Amazonian Peru
Modern and contemporary
Beginnings of contemporary Native American art
Pinpointing the exact time of emergence of "modern" and contemporary Native art is problematic. In the past, Western art historians have considered use of Western art media or exhibiting in international art arena as criteria for "modern" Native American art history. Native American art history is a new and highly contested academic discipline, and these Eurocentric benchmarks are followed today less and less today. Many media considered appropriate for easel art were employed by Native artists for centuries, such as stone and wood sculpture and mural painting. Ancestral Pueblo artists painted with tempera on woven cotton fabric, at least 800 years ago. Certain Native artists used non-Indian art materials as soon as they became available. For example, Texcocan artist Fernando de Alva Corts Ixtlilxochitl painted with ink and watercolor on paper in the late 16th century. Bound together in the Codex Ixtlilxochitl, these portraits of historical Texcocan leaders are rendered with shading, modeling and anatomic accuracy. The Cuzco School of Peru featured Quechua easel painters in the 17th and 18th centuries. The first cabinets of curiosities in the 16th century, precursors to modern museums, featured Native American art.
It should be noted that the notion that fine art cannot be functional has not gained widespread acceptance in the Native American art world, as evidenced by the high esteem and value placed upon rugs, blankets, basketry, weapons, and other utilitarian items in Native American art shows. A dichotomy between fine art and craft is not commonly found in contemporary Native art. For example, the Cherokee Nation honors its greatest artists as Living Treasures, including frog- and fish-gig makers, flint knappers, and basket weavers, alongside sculptors, painters, and textile artists. Art historian Dawn Ades writes, "For from being inferior, or purely decorative, crafts like textiles or ceramics, have always had the possibility of being the bearers of vital knowledge, beliefs and myths."
Recognizable art markets between Natives and non-Natives emerged upon contact, but the 1820-1840s were a highly prolific time. In the Pacific Northwest and the Great Lakes region, tribes dependent upon the rapidly diminishing fur trade adopted art production a means of financial support. A painting movement known as the Iroquois Realist School emerged among the Haudenosaunee in New York in the 1820s, spearheaded by the brothers David and Dennis Cusick.
African-Ojibwe sculptor, Edmonia Lewis maintained a studio in Rome, Italy and carved Neoclassicist marble sculptors from the 1860s-1880s. Her mother belonged to the Mississauga band of the Credit River Indian Reserve. Lewis exhibited widely, and a testament to her popularity during her own time was that President Ulysses S. Grant commissioned her to carve his portrait in 1877.
Ho-Chunk artist, Angel DeCora was the best known Native American artist before World War I. She was taken from her reservation and family to the Hampton Institute, where she began her lengthy formal art training. Active in the Arts and Crafts Movement, DeCora exhibited her paintings and design widely and illustrated books by Native authors. She strove to be tribally specific in her work and was revolutionary for portraying Indians in contemporary clothing of the early 1900s. She taught art to young Native students at Carlisle Indian Industrial School and was an outspoken advocate of art as a means for Native Americans to maintain cultural pride, while finding a place in mainstream society.
The Kiowa Five or Kiowa Six, a group of Kiowa painters from Oklahoma, met with international success when their mentor, Oscar Jacobson, showed their paintings in First International Art Exposition in Prague, Czechoslovakia in 1928. They also participated in the 1932 Venice Biennale, where their art display, according to Dorothy Dunn, as acclaimed the most popular exhibit among all the rich and varied displays assembled.37]
The Santa Fe Indian Market began in 1922. John Collier became Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1933 and temporarily reversed the BIA's assimilationist policies by encouraging Native American arts and culture. By this time, Native American art exhibits and the art market increased, gaining wider audiences. In the 1920s and 30s, Indigenist art movements flourished in Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Mexico, most famously with the Mexican Muralist movements.
Basketry
Traditional Yahgan basket, woven by Abuela Cristina Caldern, Chile, photo by Jim Cadwell
Basket weaving is one of the ancient and most-widespread art forms in the Americas. From coiled sea lyme grass baskets in Nunavut to bark baskets in Tierra del Fuego, Native artists weave baskets from a wide range of materials. Typically baskets are made of vegetable fibers, but Tohono O'odham are known for their horsehair baskets and Inupiaq artists weave baskets from baleen, filtering plates of certain whales. Grand Traverse Band Kelly Church, Wasco-Wishram Pat Gold, and Eastern Band Cherokee Joel Queen all weave baskets from copper sheets or wire, and Mi'kmaq-Onondaga conceptual artist Gail Tremblay weaves baskets in the traditional fancywork patterns of her tribes from exposed film. Basketry can take many forms. Haida artist Lisa Telford uses cedar bark to weave both traditional functional baskets and impractical but beautiful cedar evening gowns and high-heeled shoes.
A range of native grasses provides material for Arctic baskets, as does baleen, which is a 20th century development. Baleen baskets are typically embellished with walrus ivory carvings. Cedar bark is often used in northwest coastal baskets. Throughout the Great Lakes and northeast, black ash and sweetgrass are woven into fancy work, featuring "porcupine" points, or decorated as strawberries. Bark baskets are traditional for gathering berries. Rivercane is the preferred material in the Southeast, and Chitimachas are regarded as the finest rivercane weavers. In Oklahoma, rivercane is prized but rare so baskets are typically made of honeysuckle or buckbrush runners. Coiled baskets are popular in the southwest and the Hopi and Apache in particular are known for pictorial coiled basketry plaques. The Tohono O'odham are well known for their basket-weaving prowess, and evidenced by the success of Annie Antone and Terrol Dew Johnson.
Kumeyaay coiled basket, Celestine Lachapa of Inajo, late 19th c.
California and Great Basin tribes are considered some of the finest basket weavers in the world. Juncus is a common material in southern California, while sedge, willow, redbud, and devil's claw are also used. Pomo basket weavers are known to weave 60-100 stitches per inch and their rounded, coiled baskets adorned with quail's topknots, feathers, abalone, and clamshell discs are known as "treasure baskets." Three of the most celebrated Californian basket weavers were Elsie Allen (Pomo), Laura Somersal (Wappo), and the late Pomo-Patwin medicine woman, Mabel McKay, known for her biography, Weaving the Dream. Louisa Keyser was a highly influential Washoe basket weaver.
Yurok women's basketry caps, Northern California
A complex technique called "doubleweave," which involves continuously weaving both an inside and outside surface is shared by the Choctaw, Cherokee, Chitimacha, Tarahumara, and Venezuelan tribes. Mike Dart, Cherokee Nation, is a contemporary practitioner of this technique. The Tarahumara, or Raramuri, of Copper Canyon, Mexico typically weave with pine needles and sotol. Yanomamo basket weavers of the Venezuelan Amazon paint their woven tray and burden baskets with geometric designs in charcoal and onto, a red berry. While in most tribes the basket weavers are often women, among the Waura tribe in Brazil, men weave baskets. They weave a wide range of styles, but the largest are called mayaku, which can be two feet wide and feature tight weaves with an impressive array of designs.
Today basket weaving often leads to environmental activism. Indiscriminate pesticide spraying endangers basket weavers' health. The black ash tree, used by basket weavers from Michigan to Maine, is threatened by the emerald ash borer. Basket weaver Kelly Church has organized two conferences about the threat and teaches children how to harvest black ash seeds. Many native plants that basket weavers use are endangered. Rivercane only grows in 2% of its original territory. Cherokee basket weaver and ethnobotanist, Shawna Cain is working with her tribe to form the Cherokee Nation Native Plant Society. Tohono O'odham basket weaver Terrol Dew Johnson, known for his experimental use of gourds, beargrass, and other desert plants, took his interest in native plants and founded Tohono O'odham Community Action, which provides traditional wild desert foods for his tribe.
Beadwork
Examples of contemporary Native American beadwork
Beadwork is a quintessentially Native American art form, but ironically uses beads imported from Europe and Asia. Glass beads have been in use for almost five centuries in the Americas. Today a wide range of beading styles flourish.
In the Great Lakes, Ursuline nuns introduced floral patterns to tribes, who quickly applied them to beadwork. Great Lakes tribes are known for their bandolier bags, that might take an entire year to complete. During the 20th century the Plateau tribes, such as the Nez Perce perfected contour-style beadwork, in which the lines of beads are stitch to emphasize the pictorial imagery. Plains tribes are master beaders, and today dance regalia for man and women feature a variety of beadwork styles. While Plains and Plateau tribes are renowned for their beaded horse trappings, Subarctic tribes such as the Dene bead lavish floral dog blankets. Eastern tribes have a completely different beadwork aesthetic, and Innu, Mi'kmaq, Penobscot, and Haudenosaunee tribes are known for symmetrical scroll motifs in white beads, called the "double curve." Iroquois are also known for "embossed" beading in which strings pulled taunt force beads to pop up from the surface, creating a bas-relief. Tammy Rahr (Cayuga) is a contemporary practitioner of this style. Zuni artists have developed a tradition of three-dimensional beaded sculptures.
Huichol bead artist, photo by Mario Jareda Beivide
Huichol Indians of Jalisco and Nayarit, Mexico have a completely unique approach to beadwork. They adhere beads, one by one, to a surface, such as wood or a gourd, with a mixture of resin and beeswax.
Most Native beadwork is created for tribal use but beadworkers also create conceptual work for the art world. Richard Aitson (Kiowa-Apache) has both an Indian and non-Indian audience for his work and is known for his fully beaded cradleboards. Another Kiowa beadworker, Teri Greeves has won top honors for her beadwork, which consciously integrates both traditional and contemporary motifs, such as beaded dancers on Converse high-tops. Greeves also beads on buckskin and explores such issues as warfare or Native American voting rights.
Marcus Amerman, Choctaw, one of today's most celebrated bead artists, pioneered a movement of highly realistic beaded portraits. His imagery ranges from 19th century Native leaders to pop icons such as Janet Jackson and Brook Shields.
Roger Amerman, Marcus' brother, and Martha Berry, Cherokee, have effectively revived Southeastern beadwork, a style that had been lost because of forced removal from tribes to Indian Territory. Their beadwork commonly features white bead outlines, an echo of the shell beads or pearls Southeastern tribes used before contact.
Jamie Okuma (Luiseo-Shoshone-Bannock) was won top awards with her beaded dolls, which can include entire families or horses and riders, all with fully beaded regalia. The antique Venetian beads she uses can as small as size 22, about the size of a grain of salt. Juanita Growing Thunder Fogarty, Rhonda Holy Bear, and Charlene Holy Bear are also prominent beaded dollmakers.
The widespread popularity of glass beads does not mean aboriginal bead making is dead. Perhaps the most famous Native bead is wampum, a cylindrical tube of quahog or whelk shell. Both shells produce white beads, but only parts of the quahog produce purple. These are ceremonially and politically important to a range of Eastern tribes. Elizabeth James Perry (Aquinnah Wampanoag-Eastern Band Cherokee) creates wampum jewelry today, including wampum belts.
Ceramics
See also: Native American pottery
Mata Ortiz pottery jar by Jorge Quintana, 2002. Displayed at Museum of Man, San Diego, California.
Ceramics have been created in the Americas for the last 8000 years, as evidenced by pottery found in Caverna da Pedra Pintada in the heart of the Brazilian Amazon. The Island of Maraj in Brazil remains a major center of ceramic art today. In Mexico, Mata Ortiz ceramics continue the ancient Casas Grandes tradition of polychrome pottery. Juan Quezada is one of the leading potters from Mata Ortiz.
In the Southeast, the Catawba tribe is known for its tan-and-black mottled pottery. Eastern Band Cherokees' pottery has Catawba influences. In Oklahoma, Cherokees lost their pottery traditions until revived by Anna Belle Sixkiller Mitchell. The Caddo tribe's centuries-long pottery tradition had died out in the early 20th century, but has been effectively revived by Jereldine Redcorn.
Pueblo people are particularly known for their ceramic traditions. Nampeyo (ca. 18601942) was a Hopi potter who collaborated with anthropologists to revive traditional pottery forms and designs, and many of her relatives are successful potters today. Maria and Julian Martinez, both San Ildefonso Pueblo revived their tribe's blackware tradition in the early 20th century. Julian invented a gloss-matte blackware style for which his tribe is still known today. Lucy Lewis (1898-1992) of Acoma Pueblo gained recognition for her black-on-white ceramics in the mid-20th century. Cochiti Pueblo was known for its grotesque figurines at the turn-of-the-century, and these have been revived by Virgil Ortiz. Cochiti potter Helen Cordero (1915-1994) invented storyteller figures, which feature a large, single figure of a seated elder telling stories to groups of smaller figures.
While northern potters are not as well known as their southern counterparts, ceramic arts extend as far north as the Arctic. Inuit potter, Makituk Pingwartok of Cape Dorset uses a pottery wheel to create her prize winning ceramics.
Today contemporary Native potters create a wide range of ceramics from functional pottery to monumental ceramic sculpture. Roxanne Swentzell of Santa Clara Pueblo is one of the leading ceramic artists in the Americas. She creates coil-built, emotionally-charged figures that comment on contemporary society. Nora Naranjo-Morse, also of Santa Clara Pueblo is world renowned for her individual figures as well as conceptual installations featuring ceramics. Diego Romero of Cochiti is known for his ceramic bowls, painted with satirical scenes that combine Ancestral Pueblo, Greek, and pop culture imagery. Hundreds more Native contemporary ceramic artists are taking pottery in new directions.
Performance art
Performance art by Wayne Gaussoin (Picuris), Museum of Contemporary Native Art
Performance art is a new art form, emerging in the 1960s, and so does not carry the cultural baggage of many other art genres. Performance art can draw upon storytelling traditions, as well as music and dance, and often includes elements of installation, video, film, and textile design. Rebecca Belmore, a Canadian Ojibway performance artist, has represented her country in the prestigious Venice Biennale. James Luna, a Luiseo-Mexican performance artist, also participated in the Venice Biennale in 2005,:25 representing the National Museum of the American Indian.
Performance allows artists to confront their audience directly, challenge long held stereotypes, and bring up current issues, often in an emotionally charged manner. "[P]eople just howl in their seats, and there's ranting and booing or hissing, carrying on the in the audience," says Rebecca Belmore of the response to her work.:146 She has created performances to call attention to violence against and many unsolved murders of First Nations women. Both Belmore and Luna create elaborate, often outlandish outfits and props for their performances and move through a range of characters. For instance, a repeating character of Luna's is Uncle Jimmy,:31 a disabled veteran who criticizes greed and apathy on his reservation. On the other hand, Marcus Amerman, a Choctaw performance artist, maintains a consistent role of the Buffalo Man, whose irony and social commentary arise from the odd situations in which he finds himself, for instance a James Bond movie or lost in a desert labyrinth.
Erica Lord, Inupiaq-Athabaskan, explores her mixed-race identity and conflicts about the ideas of home through her performance art. In her words, "In order to sustain a genuine self, I create a world in which I shift to become one or all of my multiple visions of self." She has suntanned phrases into her skin, donned cross-cultural and cross-gender disguises, and incorporated songs, ranging from Inupiaq throat singing to racist children's rhymes into her work.
A Bolivian anarcha-feminist cooperative, Mujeres Creando or "Women Creating" features many indigenous artists. They create public performances or street theater to bring attention to issues of women's, indigenous people's, and lesbian's rights, as well as anti-poverty issues. Julieta Paredes, Mara Galindo and Mnica Mendoza are founding members.
Performance art has allowed Native Americans access to the international art world, and Rebecca Belmore mentions that her audiences are non-Native;:146 however, Native American audiences also respond to this genre. Bringing It All Back Home, a 1997 film collaboration between James Luna and Chris Eyre, documents Luna's first performance at his own home, the La Jolla Indian Reservation. Luna describes the experience as "probably the scariest moment of my life as an artist ... performing for the members of my reservation in the tribal hall.":30
Photography
Lee Marmon (Laguna Pueblo), next to his most famous photograph, "White Man's Moccasins"
Native Americans embraced photography in the 19th century. Some even owned their own photography studios, such as Benjamin Haldane (1874-1941), Tsimshian of Metlakatla Village on Annette Island, Alaska, and Jennie Ross Cobb (1881-1959), Cherokee Nation, of Tahlequah, Oklahoma. Their early photographs stand in stark contrast to the romanticized images of Edward Curtis and other contemporaries. Martn Chambi (1891-1973), a Quechua photographer from Peru, was one of the pioneering indigenous photographers of South America. Peter Pitseolak (1902-1973), Inuit from Cape Dorset, Nunavut, documented Inuit life in the mid-20th century while dealing with challenges presented by the harsh climate and extreme light conditions of the Canadian Arctic. He developed his film himself in his igloo, and some of his photos were shot by oil lamps. Horace Poolaw (1906-1984), Kiowa, shot over 2000 images of his neighbors and relatives in Western Oklahoma from the 1920s onward. Jean Fredericks (b. 1906), Hopi, had to carefully negotiate cultural views towards photography and made a point of not offering his portraits of Hopi people for sale to the public.
Today innumerable Native people are professional art photographers; however, acceptance to the genre has met with challenges. Hulleah Tsinhnahjinnie, Navajo-Muscogee-Seminole, has not only established a successful career with her own work, she has also been an advocate for the entire field of Native American photography. She has curated shows and organized conferences at the C.N. Gorman Museum at UC Davis featuring Native American photographers. Tsinhnahjinnie wrote the book, Our People, Our Land, Our Images: International Indigenous Photographers. Native photographers taking their skills into the fields of art videography, photocollage, digital photography, and digital art.
Printmaking
Although it is widely speculated that the ancient Adena stone tablets were used for printmaking, not much is known about aboriginal American printmaking. 20th century Native artists have borrowed techniques from Japan and Europe, such as woodcut, linocut, serigraphy, monotyping, and other practices.
Kenojuak Ashevak of the West Baffin Eskimo Co-op Ltd., photo by Judith Eglington
Printmaking has flourished among Inuit communities in particular. European-Canadian James Houston created a graphic art program in Cape Dorset, Nunavut in 1957.:49 Houston taught local Inuit stone carvers how to created prints from stone-blocks and stencils. He asked local artists to draw pictures and the shop generated limited edition prints, based on the ukiyo-e workshop system of Japan. Cooperative print shops were also established in nearby communities, including Baker Lake, Puvirnituq, Holman, and Pangnirtung. These shops have experimented with etching, engraving, lithography, and silkscreen. Shops produced annual catalogs advertising their collections. Local birds and animals, spirit beings, and hunting scenes are the most popular subject matter,:49 but are allegorical in nature.:52 Backgrounds tend to be minimal and perspective is mixed.:50 One of the most prominent of Cape Dorset artists is Kenojuak Ashevak (born 1927), who has received many public commissions and two honorary doctorate degrees.:50 Other prominent Inuit printmakers and graphic artists include Parr, Osuitok Ipeelee, Germaine Arnaktauyok, Pitseolak Ashoona, Tivi Etok, Helen Kalvak, Jessie Oonark, Kananginak Pootoogook, Pudlo Pudlat, Irene Avaalaaqiaq Tiktaalaaq, and Simon Tookoome. Inuit printmaker Andrew Qappik designed the coat of arms of Nunavut.
Many Native painters transformed their paintings into fine art prints. Potawatomi artist Woody Crumbo created bold, screen prints and etchings in the mid-20th century that blended traditional, flat Bacone Style with Art Deco influences. Kiowa-Caddo-Choctaw painter, T.C. Cannon traveled to Japan to study wood block printing from master printers.
In Chile, Mapuche printmaker Santos Chvez (1934-2001) was one of the most celebrated artists of his country with over 85 solo exhibitions during his lifetime.
Melanie Yazzie (Navajo), Linda Lomahaftewa (Hopi-Choctaw), and Debora Iyall (Cowlitz) have all built successful careers with their print and have gone on to teach the next generation of printers. Walla Walla artist, James Lavadour founded Crow's Shadow Institute of the Arts on the Umatilla Reservation in Oregon in 1992. Crow's Shadow features a state-of-the-art printmaking studio and offers workshops, exhibition space, and printmaking residencies for Native artists, in which they pair visiting artists with master printers.
Sculpture
For Life in all Directions, Roxanne Swentzell (Santa Clara Pueblo), bronze, NMAI
Native Americans have created sculpture, both monumental and small, for millennia. Stone sculptures are ubiquitous through the Americas, in the forms of stelae, inuksuit, and statues. Alabaster stone carving is popular among Western tribes, where catlinite carving is traditional in the Northern Plains and fetish-carving is traditional in the Southwest, particularly among the Zuni. The Tano of Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic are known for their zemis sacred, three-pointed stone sculptures.
Inuit artists sculpt with walrus ivory, caribou antlers, bones, soapstone, serpentinite, and argillite. They often represent local fauna and humans engaged in hunting or ceremonial activities.
Edmonia Lewis paved the way for Native American artists to sculpt in mainstream traditions using non-Native materials. Allan Houser (Fort Sill Apache) became one of most prominent Native sculptors of the 20th century. Though he worked in wood and stone, Houser is most known for his monumental bronze sculptors, both representational and abstract. Houser influenced a generation of Native sculptors by teaching at the Institute of American Indian Arts. His two sons, Phillip and Bob Haozous are sculptors today. Roxanne Swentzell (Santa Clara Pueblo) is known for her expressive, figurative, ceramic sculptures but has also branched into bronze casting, and her work is permanently displayed at the National Museum of the American Indian.
Glass sculpture by Preston Singletary, based on signature of Oakerhater (Cheyenne)
The Northwest Coastal tribes are known for their woodcarving most famously their monumental totem poles that display clan crests. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, this art form was threatened but was effectively revived. Kwakwaka'wakw totem pole carvers such as Charlie James, Mungo Martin, Ellen Neel, and Willie Seaweed kept the art alive and also carved masks, furniture, bentwood boxes, and jewelry. Haida carvers include Charles Edenshaw, Bill Reid, and Robert Davidson. Besides working in wood, Haida also work with argillite. Traditional formline designs translate well into glass sculpture, which is increasingly popular thanks to efforts by contemporary glass artists such as Preston Singletary (Tlingit), Susan Point (Coast Salish) and Marvin Oliver (Quinault/Isleta Pueblo).
In the Southeast, woodcarving dominates sculpture. Willard Stone, of Cherokee descent, exhibited internationally in the mid-20th century. Amanda Crowe (Eastern Band Cherokee) studied sculpture at the Art Institute of Chicago and returned to her reservation to teach over 2000 students woodcarving over a period of 40 years, ensuring that sculpture thrives as an art form on the Qualla Boundary.
Textiles
Kaqchikel Maya sash, Santa Catarina Palop, Guatemala, ca. 2006-7
Fiberwork dating back 10,000 years has been unearthed from Guitarrero Cave in Peru. Cotton and wool from alpaca, llamas, and vicuas have been woven into elaborate textiles for thousands of years in the Andes and are still important parts of Quechua and Aymara culture today. Coroma in Antonio Quijarro Province, Bolivia is a major center for ceremonial textile production. An Aymara elder from Coroma said, "In our sacred weavings are expressions of our philosophy, and the basis for our social organization... The sacred weavings are also important in differentiating one community, or ethnic group, from a neighboring group..."
Kuna woman with molas, San Blas Islands, Panama.
Kuna tribal members of Panama and Colombia are famous for their molas, cotton panels with elaborate geometric designs created by a reverse appliqu technique. Designs originated from traditional skin painting designs but today exhibit a wide range of influences, including pop culture. Two mola panels form a blouse, but when a Kuna woman is tired of a blouse, she can dissemble it and sell the molas to art collectors.
Mayan women have woven cotton with backstrap looms for centuries, creating items such as huipils or traditional blouses. Elaborate Maya textiles featured representations of animals, plants, and figures from oral history. Organizing into weaving collectives have helped Mayan women earn better money for their work and greatly expand the reach of Mayan textiles in the world.
Seminole seamstresses, upon gaining access to sewing machines in the late 19th and early 20th centures, invented an elaborate appliqu patchwork tradition. Seminole patchwork, for which the tribe is known today, came into full flower in the 1920s.
Great Lakes and Prairie tribes are known for their ribbonwork, found on clothing and blankets. Strips of silk ribbons are cut and appliqud in layers, creating designs defined by negative space. The colors and designs might reflect the clan or gender of the wearer. Powwow and other dance regalia from these tribes often feature ribbonwork. These tribes are also known for their fingerwoven sashes.
Pueblo men weave with cotton on upright looms. Their mantas and sashes are typically made for ceremonial use for the community, not for outside collectors.
Beginning of a Chilkat blanket, woven by Elsie Gale Stewart-Burton (Haida), Ketchikan, Alaska
Navajo rugs are woven by Navajo women today from Navajo-Churro sheep or commercial wool. Designs can be pictorial or abstract, based on traditional Navajo, Spanish, Oriental, or Persian designs. 20th century Navajo weavers include Clara Sherman and Hosteen Klah, who co-founded the Wheelwright Museum of the American Indian.
Traditional textiles of Northwest Coast tribes are enjoying a dramatic revival. Chilkat weaving and ravenstail weaving are regarded as some of the most difficult weaving techniques in the world. A single Chilkat blanket can take an entire year to weave. In both techniques, dog, mountain goat, or sheep wool and shredded cedar bark are combined to create textiles featuring curvilinear formline designs. Tlingit weaver Jennie Thlunaut (1982-1986) was instrumental in this revival.
Experimental contemporary textile artists include Martha Gradolf (Winnebago), whose work is overtly political in nature, and Ramona Sakiestewa (Hopi), who explores non-representational abstraction in her weaving.
Blanket Stories, Marie Watt (Seneca), installation, 2004, George Gustav Heye Center
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Native American art
Timeline of Native American art history
List of indigenous artists of the Americas
List of Native American artists
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
Native American pottery
Painting in the Americas before Colonization
Paraguayan Indian art
Pre-Columbian art
Archaeology of the Americas
Citations
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^ Crawford and Kelley, pp. 496-7.
^ a b "Poverty Point-2000 to 1000 BCE". http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/popo/hd_popo.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-02.
^ "CRT-Louisiana State Parks Fees, Facilities and Activities". http://www.crt.state.la.us/parks/ipvertypt.aspx. Retrieved 2009-03-02.
^ Mississippian Period: Overview
^ Material from the State Archives of Florida.
^ Pyburn, Anne. "Peoples of the Great Plains". Indiana University. (retrieved 29 Jan 2010)
^ Bement, Leland C. Bison hunting at Cooper site: where lightning bolts drew thundering herds. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999: 37, 43, 176. ISBN 978-0-8061-3053-8.
^ "Native American and First Nations' GIS." Native Geography. Dec 2000 (retrieved 29 January 2010)
^ (Berlo and Phillips, 131)
^ (Berlo and Phillips, 132)
^ (Berlo and Phillips, 136)
^ The British Museum Website
^ The British Museum Website
^ Covarrubias, p. 193.
^ Mason 1929, p. 182. from Richardson 1932, pp. 489.
^ The British Museum Website
^ The British Museum Website
^ The British Museum Website
^ The British Museum Website
^ Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. "Jade in Costa Rica". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000.(October 2001)
^ "Curly-Tailed Animal Pendant [Panama; Initial style] (91.1.1166)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/05/cac/ho_91.1.1166.htm (October 2006)
^ "Deity Figure (Zemi) Dominican Republic; Taino (1979.206.380)"
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^ Bartholomew Dean 2009 Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia, Gainesville: University Press of Florida ISBN 978-081303378
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^ Levenson, pp. 554-5.
^ Chavez, Will. 2006 Cherokee National Living Treasure artists announced. The Cherokee Phoenix. 2006 (retrieved 1 March 2009)
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^ Hutchinson, p. 742
^ Hutchinson, p. 754
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^ Dalrymple, p. 2
^ Indian Cultures from Around the World: Yanomamo Indians. Hands Around the World. (retrieved 16 March 2009)
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^ Original Wampum Art. Elizabeth James Perry. 2008 (retrieved 13 March 2009)
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^ Vision of Brazil.
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^ a b Ryan, Allan J. The Trickster Shift: Humor and Irony in Contemporary Native Art. Vancouver: UBC Press, 1999. ISBN 0-7748-0704-0.
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References
General
Boas, Frank (1955). Primitive Art. New York: Dover.
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Darvill, Timothy (2008). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-953405-0.
Dunn, Dorothy. (1968) American Indian Painting. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Gardner, Helen (1959). Art Through the Ages, 4th ed.. New York: Harcourt and Brace.
Levenson, Jay A., ed. (1991) Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. ISBN 0-300-05167-0.
Mann, Charles C. (2005). 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 1-4000-4006-X.
North America
Berlo, Janet C.; Ruth B. Phillips (1998). Native North American Art. Oxford History of Art. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-284218-3.
Dalrymple, Larry (2000). California and Great Basin Indian Basketmakers: The Living Art and Fine Tradition. Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-89013-337-9
Dubin, Lois Sherr (1999). North American Indian Jewelry and Adornment: From Prehistory to the Present. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-3689-5
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Hessel, Ingo (2006). Arctic Spirit: Inuit Art from the Albrecht Collection at the Heard Museum. Phoenix, AZ: Heard Museum. ISBN 978-1-55365-189-5.
Hessel, Ingo (2002). Inuit Art: an Introduction. Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre. ISBN 1550548298.
Hill, Sarah H. (1997). Weaving New Worlds: Southeastern Cherokee Women and Their Basketry. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-4650-3.
Hutchinson, Elizabeth (Dec 2001). "Modern Native American Art: Angel DeCora's Transcultural Aesthetics." Art Bulletin. Vol. 83, 4: 740-756.
Masayesva, Victor and Erin Younger (1983). Hopi Photographers: Hopi Images. Sun Tracks, Tucson, Arizona. ISBN 978-0816508044.
Shearar, Cheryl (2000). Understanding Northwest Coast Art: A Guide to Crests, Bein... I am China Manufacturers writer, reports some information about sash lock , fafnir bearings.
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